Summary

A book is a set or collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment  or other various material, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side of a leaf is called a page. (WIKI). Records show that writing has taken many forms over history as have books. Books have changed beginning with clay tablets, moving to papyrus, parchment and paper. Today books can also be found in an electronic form.As the evolution of the printing press began to rise, the book was born. Gutenberg's invention, the printing press, changed the world forever. The invention increased the production of books and reduced the amount of manpower needed to construct books. The tedious work which had previously been performed by scribes, was now replaced by a machine, which could perform the same task in a fraction of the amount of time. Copying of written works, was no longer the work of an artist, but the work of a vehicle of technological advancement. 

History

Clay Tablets:

The ancient Sumerians Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hittites wrote on Tablets 1 Fine clay was well kneaded and made into biscuits or tablets. Clay tablets were written on wet, and because of this the people of this time learned to write with speed and accuracy 2These clay tablets often varied but many shared a similar size and shape of a thin tile about five inches long 1. A scribe used a triangular stylus to carve the clay, writing on all surfaces. If the text was long the scribe would connect several tablets together using numbers and catchwords much like books today 1.

Papyrus Technology

Papyrus was a writing medium that was used near the Nile Delta 2. This new way to write was extremely light weight which allowed for easy transportation.  Papyrus sheets date from the first dynasty and inscribed sheets date as far back as the fifth dynasty 2. The writing from of Papyrus came from the plant Cyperus Papyrus. The plant was manufactured by stripping the green stems were cut into suitable lengths, green rind stripped off and then laid parallel to each other. Layers were placed on top of each other and smashed with a mallet for over two hours. The sheets were also pressed and dried 2These papyrus sheets were fastened to each other in great lengths. The scribe wrote on the papyrus sheets using Brushes made from Funcus maritimus also known as rush.  The scribe used both black and red ink making hieratic characters from left to right, arranging the text in vertical columns or horizontal lines or equal size that formed the pages. The rest of the papyrus was kept rolled in the left hand 2

Bamboo Books

Bamboo books have been largely found in China where the population of Bamboo is at its greatest. In approximately 400 BC Chinese people would write on Bamboo sticks, vertically. A thin strip of bamboo was ideal, if more room was needed, Bamboo sticks could be thread together using two lines of thread 3 The modern day Chinese symbol  for book evolved from the pictogram of bamboo strips.

Parchment:

In 150 CE the Pharaoh Ptolemy V of Egypt refused to sell any more Papyrus to King Eumenes of Pergamon because Ptolemy was afraid the Kings library was going to be as good or better than his own. Eumenes instructed his people to make his books out of parchment instead 4 Parchment is made from animal skins most often from the skins’ of baby sheep and cows . The more expensive the parchment, the softer finer the parchment is.  The most expensive is Vellum which which is made up of lambs, kids or calves. Parchment is like leather, however after treatment on both sides, the parchment can be written on both sides making it more practical. Parchment is strong and flexible enough for separate pages of a manuscript to be sewn together down one side, to form the spine of a book. This shape, whether in a manuscript codex or printed book, represents a massive advance in the efficiency of written communication 5.

Paper:

Paper can be traced to the Chinese and Cai Lun in the year AD 105. Cai Lun presented the emperor with a new substance made from rags and fibers of mulberry, laurel and Chinese grass 5These materials were repeatedly soaked, pounded, washed, boiled, strained and bleached until a mush was formed. This mush was then left to drain in a mesh frame and then dried. This paper was thinner then parchment and could be made in any size. This new discovery takes more than 1000 years to reach Europe.  

The Christians conquered Islamic Spain in the 1200s and learn to make paper. By 1250 AD, the Italians had learned to make good paper and sell it all over Europe. French Monks make their own paper in1348.And by 1411 - nearly a millennium and a half after it was invented - people in Germany began to produce their own Rag Paper 4.The demand for paper was slight in the 1st Century Europe. Paper cost more than vellum, it was more fragile than parchment and it was associated with Jews and Arabs who were not trusted. The Church in Western Europe initially banned the use of paper calling it a 'pagan art' believing that animal parchment was the only thing 'holy' enough to carry the Sacred Word. 5. 

Rags were the main ingredient in paper until the supply of paper outgrows the availability of rags.  In Maine and Massachusetts in 1860 it is discovered that wood can be pulped and turned into paper 5Today, paper is still made from wood, however it is now chemically treated. Once the Germans  had learned to make paper, they became more interested in also learning about Chinese Printing and a man called Gutenberg produced the first printed Bible in 1453

Electronic Book

An electronic book is a book designed to be read from a computer, it may include a desk top computer, handheld computer or specialized electronic book reader device 6.  This book can be the same as a printed version, or it can be different. Some electronic books can contain interactions as well as hyperlinks for the user. An electronic book is a more environmentally friendly alternative to paperback books. It is also more mobile than a traditional book.

The Purpose of Books

      The 7th century through the 13th century was the age of religious "manuscript" book production. Books in this period were entirely constructed by hand, and were largely religious in nature, with texts whose creation was meant as an act of worship.[1] Books were not created for fun or for leisure, rather they were seen as holy objects. The production of the Bible was the place where the arts of the austere scribes and lay artists prospered.[1] The production of books were few and far between. Scribes would spend years creating page after page. It was here that the most elaborate and beautiful illustrations found their outlet.The manuscript books from this period represent the height of "the art of decoration."[1] A good example of this is the Irish Book of Kells, a large manuscript code consisting of the four Gospels written in Latin, that were printed in the New Testament. According to Bernard Meehan, the author of The Book of Kells: An Illustrated Introduction to the Manuscript in Trinity College in Dublin, the Book of Kells is the most lavishly decorated of any manuscript produced between the 7th and 9th century. The most essential concept about manuscript books during this period, is that they were viewed as objects of religious veneration. They were seen as consecrated objects. Their creation was an act of religious devotion. The monks who sat for years, working on single chapters of the Bible, were not reproducing books, rather they were spreading the word of God through their writings.

                                      The Book of Kells- was transcribed by                 

                                                                 Celtic monks ca. 800, and consisted of

                                                       numerous passages drawn from earlier versions of

                                  the Bible, better known as the Vetus Latina, which contained Old Latin writings.

      By the end of the 13th century, secular books, or in other words, non-religious works, begun to be produced. The overlying concept of books was changed from objects of worship, to objects of knowledge and greater information. The rise of printed books and other matierials lead to a world of new readers. The production of secular books was driven by two major catalysts. The first major catalyst was the rise of universities in Europe, specificially in Italy. The second major stimulant was the return of the Crusaders in the 13th century, who brought with them texts from Byzantium, an ancient Greek City, founded by colonists from Megara, an ancient city in Attica, Greece, in the year 667 B.C.[1] These books, written during the Greek and Roman periods, focused on topics which affected the entire world at large.

The Printing Press and a Changing World

      The pivotal change that affected the print industry, was the Protestant Reformation, beginning in the 16th century. Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation during the year 1517, with the posting of his Ninety-Five Theses on the Catholic Church doors in Germany.[2] The Reformation was deemed the first revolutionary mass movement due to the printed propaganda that was hallmark during this time period. Printed propaganda came in the form of pictures, much like todays political comics. Most of the people during this time period were illiterate and had no education. Elizabeth Eisenstein states, in her book, The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe, "In this light it may seem plausible to suggest that printing fostered a movement from an image culture to a word culture."[3] Most of the printed propaganda was directed at the Pope. The propaganda proved to be effective at challenging the power of the Roman Catholic church, primarily because the Church itself had done such a wonderful job of educating the otherwise illiterate masses. [2]

 Connection To Media Ecology: 

Books can be tied in to Media Ecology because the book incorporates many aspects of technology. The printing press allowed for mass production of books which changed the world forever. No longer were people being read to, or only reading religious materials. The printing press allowed for the mass production of books. Books were now being used for information and propaganda. The book has evolved through time, from the ancient world of clay tablets to paper today where books are read on E-Readers. Books are a part of our technological developments and therefore need to be recognized as a part of Media Ecology.